关于灯和光，SPS超级科普文章（转自www.reefs.org）

现代书呆子

Presentation

Introduction

It's good to be online once again through #reefs. This particular presentation will be a basic level introduction to some of the latest issues concerning the pigments within photosynthetic corals. There has been some important scientific papers published within the past few years concerning the pigments within the coral animal itself. A second topic discussed concerns the photosynthetic pigments within the symbiotic algae that reside inside the photosynthetic corals. There has been some important work on these Symbiodinium species algae that has been largely ignored by the captive coral market. A third topic discussed during this presentation concerns how captive lighting can be setup to establish a lighting environment that better provides the algae and coral light collecting pigments with the types of light or specific color of light that they can physically absorb. The performances of specific light bulbs are discussed based on published spectral testing conducted by Sanjay Joshi. I have personally just completed writing the manuscript for three chapters on lighting and pigments for a book on Stony Corals that will be published by TFH/Microcosms. The rough draft of the book will be completed by fall and should be printed within 1 to 2 years. The 3 chapters contain a total of 43,000 words, 65 figures and 31 tables. Needless to say we cannot convey all that information through this forum and I think that would also violate the contract I have signed with the book publisher. The first reviewer that has read through these chapters has noted that there are quite a few points that may be conflicting with some of the established conventional wisdom of the reef hobby. So, it is probably a good idea to set the ground work for that information through an introductory presentation such as this. It should be noted that a complete reference listing will not be given here, but will appear within the TFH/Microcosm Stony Coral book.

Section I - Light Collecting Pigments within Symbiodinium algae

Photosynthetic Corals first evolved millions of years ago without the ability to use or capture light. They were initially animals that derived almost all of their nutrition by collecting food items with their external polyp tentacles. Dissolved organics and some inorganic nutrients were also probably directly absorbed from sea water. At some point in their natural history, these simple invertebrate animals developed an ability to incorporate living single cell algae within their bodies. This relationship has progressed to the point where the coral can now control the algae to release a large percentage of the organic carbon compounds that are produced from the process of photosynthesis. In essence, the corals are now farming the algae and utilizing organic products synthesized by the algae. In return, the corals provide the algae with a stable environment and also supply nutrients that are required by the algae. The loss of this symbiotic algae, which can occur during Coral Bleaching events, can often lead to the death of modern day photosynthetic corals.

The algae within photosynthetic corals are single cell dinoflagellates that lack the normal flagellate or tail. Dinoflagellates are important members of the phytoplankton community that inhabits the shallow waters of the worlds oceans. Other then lacking a tail, the corals dinoflagellate algae possess characteristics that are common to other dinoflagellates. There are many different species of Symbiodinium algae that live symbiotically within corals, clams and other various invertebrate organisms. Some specific corals even contain multiple species or multiple strains of algae. Light is obviously a very important factor for photosynthetic algae. The process of photosynthesis involves light collecting pigments, which are basically chemical molecules that possess the ability to absorb visible light photons. The energy from these absorbed light photons is then transferred to reaction centers. We will not be discussing the inner workings of the photosynthetic process. The major concern during this presentation is the actual light collecting pigments within the algae. Without these pigments there would be no absorbed light energy for the photosynthetic reaction centers to process.

Photosynthetic pigments are the pigments that collect and process light energy which is eventually directly utilized by the photosynthetic apparatus. Symbiodinium algae also contain non-photosynthetic pigments which are typically used for photoprotective functions. Non-photosynthetic pigments include the carotenoids Beta Carotene and diadinoxanthin. The actual photosynthetic pigments within Symbiodinium algae can be grouped into two different types, which are the chlorophyll's and the carotenoid peridinin pigment. The chlorophyll's include chlorophyll_a and cholorphyll_c2. Chlorophyll_a has strong light absorbing capabilities within the violet/blue area of the light spectrum and can also absorb a significant amount of red light. Chlorophyll_c2 is utilized as an accessory photosynthetic pigment that primarily absorbs blue light. Chlorophyll pigments in general do not absorb much green light. This is why grass is colored green and the leaves of many trees are colored green. The other dominant photosynthetic pigment within Symbiodinium algae is the carotenoid peridinin pigment. Dinoflagellate algae, in general, possess a unique characteristic. Unlike most other photosynthetic organisms, the dinoflagellates incorporate the carotenoid peridinin as an accessory pigment within the photosynthetic light collecting antennae or apparatus. Peridinin is the most prevalent carotenoid pigment within Symbiodinium algae. For example, 77 % of the carotenoid pigments within the Symbiodinium algae from a Tridacna crocea clam were found to be composed of peridinin pigments. Peridinin was also found to be the highest percentage carotenoid pigment found within the algae of a Pocillopora stony coral. The peridinin pigment primarily absorbs blue light along with some violet and some green. Visually the pigment appears red and the combination of green appearing chlorophyll pigments and red appearing peridinin pigments, give the Symbiodinium algae their characteristic brown coloration.

The photosynthetic light collecting apparatus or antennae within dinoflagellates has a unique form and structure. Most photosynthetic animals utilize chlorophyll's as their dominant photosynthetic light collecting pigments. The dinoflagellates however, incorporate peridinin pigments into the photosynthetic light collecting molecules that comprise their light collecting antennae. These molecules consist of peridinin-chlorophyll protein complexes. The first type of complex described within the algae was the water soluble peridinin-chlorophyll_a-protein called sPCP. The second type was the membrane bound chlorophyll_a-chlorophyll_c2-peridinin-protein called acpPC. There are a total of 4 known peridinin-chlorophyll protein complexes types that exist within the dinoflagellates. More then 80 % of the photosynthetic pigments within Symbiodinium algae cells were found to be peridinin-chlorophyll protein complexes. Symbiodinium pigment protein complexes are physically composed of 4 peridinin pigments that are combined with a single chlorophyll_a pigment. Three species of Symbiodinium were found to contain a peridinin to chlorophyll_a ratio of 4 to 1. Peridinin is the dominant photosynthetic light collecting pigment within the antennae molecules of these algae. Most of the pigment protein complexes that occur within Symbiodinium are composed of the acpPC pigment protein. This protein complex contains a chlorophyll_c2 pigment in addition to a chlorophyll_a pigment along with 4 peridinins. The acpPC pigment complex primarily absorbs blue light along with some violet. A less significant amount of red light is also absorbed. I have uploaded a low resolution figure of the absorption curve for this pigment complex taken in isolation. You can access it here. The less prevalent sPCP pigment complex primarily absorbs blue, violet and some green light. There is also a minor amount of red light absorbed. I have uploaded a low resolution figure of the absorption curve for this pigment complex taken in isolation. You can access it here. The affects of the absorption characteristics of these two photosynthetic pigment complexes is evident within the photosynthetic absorption spectrum for a Symbiodinium microadriaticum. An uploaded low resolution image here. The importance of blue and violet light can be clearly seen within these curves.

现代书呆子

Section III - Captive Lighting Applications

Just what does all this information about algal pigments and coral pigments mean to captive stony aquarists? The book on captive stony corals that I am writing for TFH/Microcosm goes into great detail about how the spectral output of specific light bulbs correlates or matches the spectral attributes of the various coral and algal pigments. I spend very little time analyzing how the spectral output of lower temperature bulbs (for example 5,500 K and 4,200 K) correlate with algal and coral pigmentation. This is simply because they correlate very poorly. Bulbs that emit large amounts of yellow, orange and red light will not stimulate the fluorescence of the Highly Fluorescent Pocilloporin Pigments. Bulbs that do not emit significant amounts of violet/blue/green light will not be providing the main wavelengths of light that is absorbed by the algal chlorophyll_a, chlorophyll_c2 and peridinin pigments. Chlorophyll_a can absorb some red light, but the 5,500 K and 4,200 K bulbs do not emit red light of the proper wavelength.

To help clarify the situation I have grouped useable captive light bulbs into 4 basic groups or types. They are Full Spectrum Green, Super Blue, Full Spectrum Violet and Actinic (Super Violet). The Iwasaki 6,500 K is the only bulb classified as a Full Spectrum Green bulb. This bulb emits the highest percentage of its light within the green and yellow parts of the spectrum. It also emits significant amounts of violet, blue, orange and red light. About 60 % of the total light emitted by this bulb is either green, yellow or orange light. That type of light is not primarily absorbed by the chlorophyll and peridinin pigments within the algae. The bulb does however emit significant amounts of violet and blue light which are primarily useable by the algae. This bulb could use a boost within its high energy blue part of the emission spectrum around 440 nm. Many aquarists have had success with the bulb and it is definitely useable. The very strong photon flux density emitted by the bulb helps to compensate for its spectral limitations. This bulb will moderately stimulate the blue, yellow and linked red fluorescing pocilloporin pigments. Green and red fluorescing pocilloporin will be strongly stimulated to fluoresce. A moderate amount of light emitted by this bulb can be absorbed by the pink pocilloporin pigment. The 400 and 250 watt versions of this bulb are both useable for shallow water stony corals. Many aquarists will use actinic fluorescents to help balance the green/yellow appearance of the bulb. It would be better to add blue light because the bulb already emits a significant amount of violet light.

The Radium/Osram 20,000 K and Sunburst 12,000 K are both classified as Super Blue bulbs. Super Blue bulbs emit the vast majority of their light within wavelengths from 440 to 460 nm (high energy blue). They also emit small amounts of violet and green light. The narrow emission of this bulb happens to be located within an area of the spectrum where chlorophyll_a, chlorophyll_c2 and the peridinin pigments can absorb and utilize the light. The vast majority of the emitted light energy from the Super Blue bulbs is photosynthetically useable by the algae. These bulbs can actually benefit from a boost within the violet area of the spectrum. Most aquarists however will be adding daylight fluorescents to counter the very blue visual appearance of the bulbs. These bulbs will intensely stimulate the blue, green and yellow fluorescing pocilloporin pigments. Red fluorescing pocilloporin will be moderately to strongly stimulated. Super Blue bulbs only provide a weak amount of light that can be absorbed by the pink pocilloporin pigment. The 400 watt version of the Osram/Radium and the 250 watt version of the Sunburst lamps are both useable for shallow water stony corals.

The Ushio 10,000 K and Aqualine Buschke 10,000 K are Full Spectrum Violet bulbs. The spectral output of these bulbs is characterized by a large emission of violet light along with a secondary emissions of green, yellow and orange light. As Sanjay Joshi noted these bulbs trick the human eye into thinking there are emitting significant amounts of blue light. The significant violet light emission will provide plenty of light for the chlorophyll_a pigments within the algae. These bulbs will really benefit from supplemental blue light. Full Spectrum Violet bulbs will moderately stimulate the fluorescence of the green, yellow and red fluorescing pocilloporins. They will strongly stimulate the fluorescence of the blue and linked red fluorescing pigments. These bulbs only provide a weak amount of light that can be absorbed by the pink pocilloporin pigment. The 400 watt version of the Ushio and Aqualine Buschke are acceptable bulbs, while the 250 watt version of the Double Ended HQI and Aqualine Buschke are also acceptable. Actinic bulbs or Super Violet bulbs are best used as supplemental lights for bulbs that are deficient in violet light emission.

The intensity of captive light is also an important issue. Due to space limitations I can only briefly cover the subject here. Most corals imported for the captive market come from shallow water locations. This does not mean that all corals imported are bright light corals. Some of these corals will come from shaded shallow water areas and they will be low light corals. However, the majority of imported corals will be strong light corals that expect from 700 to 1,200 micro Einsteins/square meter per second. Within the stony coral book I am writing for TFH/Microcosms I have constructed guidelines for establishing different light intensities. What I have basically done is define light intensities into 4 differentlevels that are: weak light; moderate light; strong light; and intense light. As a basic guideline, strong light is typically achieved with the use of 400 watt halides. Intense light is typically achieved with the use of 1,000 watt halides. Weak and moderate light levels can be achieved with 175 to 250 watt metal halides and power compact fluorescents. There are actually quite a few low to moderate light corals being farmed within captive systems. For example, I have been farming and distributing an Echinopora lamellosa that actually prefers weak to moderate light. It develops a very nice blue fluorescing pigment in weak to moderate light, but will loose the pigment in strong light.

现代书呆子

Questions & Answers

Its known that photosynthetic reactions have a range of radiation that is most effective, beyond that range, photosynthesis falls... Do you believe that the colored pigments within coral are more protective or sugar producing?

I think you are asking if the corals pigments are more important to photosynthetic production or phtoprotection. Anything that protects the algae from photo damage will in the long run increase photoproduction.

What are your thoughts on coral growth rate and health vs. color temperature of the bulb? Is there an "ideal" bulb combination for the reef tank in your opinion?

Although I did not have the time to cover the subject here, I actually recommend a combination of different bulbs to help achieve the more ideal spectrum. For example, Iwasaki 6500 K and Super Blue bulbs is good. 10,000 K and Super Blue are also very good. Believe or not the combination of actinics with 20,000 K is also very good, but may be way too blue for most reefers.

Physiologically speaking, the flourescing pigments you mentioned, do they occur prior to the zoox channels or behind them? It would make more sense adaptively to reflect fluoresced light back to the primary zoox without losing any given spectral character?

For weak light corals the FPG's (fluorescent pigment granules) are located below the zoox. They modify UV and violet light into light that is more photosynthetically useable by fluorescing it upward toward the zoox. Strong light corals have the FPG's located above the zoox so that fluoresced light travels upward and away.

Not lighting related, but how is stoney coloration affected by lots of nutrients in the water? Some gets more colorful, others get brownish?"

Studies have shown that elevated levels of nitrogen (nitrate) can lead to increased density of zoox. This causes the coral to appear more brown. I have also noticed that if the physical environment is not correct (weak current ad inappropiate lighting) the pigments will also fade. That was coral pigments will fade.

Does MH lighting in general produce UV-A/B lighting or need to suppliment? What about the Iwasaki 6500 K bulbs?

There is a small amount of UV-A that is produced by single ended metal halides ( according to Sanjay's testing). Double ended bulbs of course emit way too much and need shielding. UV light can really only be used to fluoresce the Violet Fluorescing Pocilloporin. If you want to experiment with this pigment you can probably use a black light.

Danna Riddle is working with new light device that guides him to say that maybe we are using to much light in our tanks because corals use all the light that they need and after that everything is useless. Did you hear about his new work? how this sound to you?

I have responded to Dana first article about this in the online magazine AAOLM (Note: AAOLM is Advanced Aquarist Online Magazine, found at http://www.advancedaquarist.com). Check the message board concerning his article for some responses. There were quite a few difficulties with collecting the data and other reef specialists such as Borneman and Harker also had some issues. The problem with PAM Fluorimeters in general is that they were not designed with the peridinin pigment in mind. They're use on stony corals zoox has produced mix results.

What is the typical conversion efficiency per incident photon for these types of fluorescing molecules?

That is an interesting question. From what I have read there is a fluorescence for every absorption. Otherwise this could lead to a heat or energy problem within the pigment. Its possible that these pigments might also dissipate energy through heat and not always fluoresce. That is probably a good subject for further investigation.

Everyone is concerned about bulbs that generate a good deal of UV radiation (such as HQI), do you feel that the UV is a necessary part of the corals coloration/growth needs or is overall detrimental?

If you plan on releasing your stony corals into the natural environment (captive farming to replace natural populations) it would probably be a good idea to have them acclimated to strong UV exposures. For normal captive situations it may only be a concern when you are moving corals from lower light fields into stronger ones. Overall we have had good success in captivity without UV exposure, but if you want to fluoresce the violet fluorescing pocilloporin some UV light may be in order.

Do you endorse the release of captive specimens to the environment?

To replace a recently extinct species it is a very good idea. TO introduce a non-native species it is not a good idea.

What are your thoughts on the usable lifetime on the higher kelvin bulbs? Current thought is that the Iwasaki's are usable for 12-18 months whereas the higher kelvin bulbs need to be replaced every 6-9 months. Do you believe this to be the case?

That is true if you maintain a constant photoperiod throughout the lifetime of the bulb. When using Super Blue bulbs I recommend an initial photoperiod from 6 to 8 hours that is slowly increased to 11 to 13 hours by the end of the year. That will get you 1 years worth of use from the Super Blues.

How does current affect the coral pigmentation?

Corals from intense to strong currents have growth forms that require these currents. This is to allow the proper diffusion barrier to develop around the coral. If the coral cannot properly interact with the surrounding water environment its overall health will deteriorate. This leads to a loss of coral pigmentations.

In your talk tonight you referenced "shallow tanks." What would be considered shallow?

Sorry, I don't recall using the term. I did mention shallow water. According to collectors shallow water is down to about 12 feet.

Is it possible that the change in spectrum that increases production of accessory pigment is detrimental to the health of the coral and reduces growth?

A recent study found that corals with increased fluorescing pigmentation were better able to survive bleaching events. Now if a coral becomes more colorful appearing because it lost its brown zoox, that would not be a good thing. A healthy coral has both a rich brown coloration and an intense coral coloration (if the species can develop it). It appears the about 97 % of the shallow water species can develop these fluorescing pigments.

In part of your talk tonight you mentioned that fluorescence is directional. How exactly is fluorescence directional?

The word directional was not used, but was inferred. This question gets into a very complex part of the fluorescing pigmentation issue. Fluorescing pigments can be bound into fluorophores and chromatophores. They can also be present as just loose fpg's. Loose FPG's would not neccessarily need 100 % directional control. As long as some of the modified photons traveled upward, that would provide more useable light to the zoox.

One attendee writes: "I have had very little success with SPS under 12K 400w bulbs and when replaced with Iwasaki 6500K bulbs I have had success in the same set up. What are your thoughts on this?"

I take it you were using the Sunburst 12 K bulbs ? From what Sanjay has noted is that the 400 watt version has variable performance from a spectral output point of view. I did not recommend it in the talk. I did recommend the 250 watt version which had good spectral output. I should clarify that what I mean here by spectral output is also the intensity of spectral output. I have had good success with 20,000 K radium/osram 400 watt bulbs for more then 6 years now.

ETA of stoney coral book from Microcosm? Is this another edition of your Stoney book or completely new?

Steve Tyree - That book is a completely new book written strictly for maintaining stony corals in captivity. The original manuscript will not be completed until the fall. My guess would be early 2004.

Could you go a little deeper on your thoughts concerning the 250w DE bulbs?

I am waiting for Sanjay to publish spectral outputs from these bulbs. The PPFD or photosynthetic photon flux density from the bulbs appears to be very good for their wattage rating. But as usual I am also concerned about the spectral output. The light fixtures are also a bit pricey right now, but they really look awesome.

And the final question for the night as we're running late on the talk: What's your secret for a perfect bloody mary? ;)

LOL, you could try some fresh protein skimmer foam for a good head.

大小爱次

翻译啊

现代书呆子

Section II - Light Collecting Pigments within the Coral Animal

The brown coloration within photosynthetic stony corals is due to the light collecting pigments found within the corals symbiotic algae. Photosynthetic stony corals can also possess many other colors that range from violets, blues, greens, yellows, oranges to reds and can include numerous combinations and shades of these primary colors. All these exotic colorations are due to pigments found within the tissue of the coral animal, and not within the symbiodinium. Coral pigments cannot directly transfer collected light energy to the corals symbiotic algae, but in some deep water corals their pigments appear to be modifying the existing light field by fluorescing one color or wavelength of light into another color or wavelength. Its been theoretically suggested that this may be an indirect technique where some coral pigments can be assisting the algal pigments with the collection of light. Shallow water stony corals have been found to possess pigments that are more intensely produced under higher light intensities. Some of these shallow water coral pigments may shield the coral from bright light of certain wavelengths, which can help prevent photoinhibition within the algae.

The first coral pigment identified was a pink colored pigment found within a Pocillopora damicornis stony coral. It was given the name pocilloporin. Pocilloporin primarily absorbs green/yellow (550-600 nm) light along with some upper UV-A. The density of the pigment is increased with increasing light intensity. It has recently been speculated that this pigments primary function may be to absorb yellow and green light that can otherwise be absorbed as scattered light by the corals photosynthetic algae. Under certain situations (strong light intensity) this type of scattered absorption of green and yellow light can occur. This pigment also emits or fluoresces a very small amount of (orange/red) light from 610 - 630 nm. Besides pink pocilloporin there are also many other types of pocilloporin pigments that occur within the photosynthetic stony corals. More recent research groups these types as either Brightly Colored Low Fluorescent Pocilloporins or as Highly Fluorescent Pocilloporins. The original pink pocilloporin pigment is a Brightly Colored Low Fluorescent Pocilloporin and to date it is the only identified coral pigment within that type or class. The Highly Fluorescent Pocilloporin pigments have the ability to absorb light with a specific wavelength and then fluoresce or emit this light into a different wavelength. Fluorescing pigments appear to have two distinct functions. Corals from strong light utilize these pigments to shield UV light and excess photosynthetically useable light away from the zooxanthellae. Corals from low light that possess fluorescing pigments can use these pigments to transform or fluoresce UV-A and violet light into more photosynthetically useable light.

A very important scientific paper was published in 2001 concerning Fluorescing Pocilloporin coral pigments. Titled "Major colour patterns of reef-building corals are due to a family of GFP-like proteins." It was published in Coral Reefs 19:197-204. The publishing of this paper was delayed by one year due to pending patent applications within Australia. I managed to acquire a copy of the manuscript about 6 months prior to its publication. This paper describes the actual molecular makeup of the fluorescing pigments within stony corals. They genetically identified 3 different types of highly fluorescent pocilloporins. One type primarily absorbs light from 310 to 380 nm (UV-B and UV-A) and then fluoresces this as light from 400 to 470 nm (violet/blue). Scientist refer to this as UV fluorescing pocilloporin, because the greatest absorption occurs within the UV area. Hobbyist should probably refer to this as violet fluorescing pocilloporin, because the visual appearance of the pigment is the fluorescing of violet light. Corals in shallow water can theoretically use this pigment to shield themselves from the harmful affects of UV light, while corals in deepwater can modify the UV-A light into light that is more photosynthetically useable. Unfortunately for the hobbyist, our eyes are not very good at perceiving violet light. Additionally, the stimulation of this pigments fluorescence requires producing UV-A/UV-B light over the reef. Violet Fluorescing Pocilloporin may be of little importance to captive corals.

A second type of highly fluorescent pocilloporin primarily absorbs light from 380 to 470 nm (UV-A, violet and blue) and fluoresces light from 475 to 520 nm (blue and green). Scientist refer to this as violet fluorescing pocilloporin, because its greatest absorption occurs within the violet area. Hobbyist should probably refer to this as blue fluorescing pocilloporin, because the visual appearance of the pigment is the fluorescing of blue light. There are a couple of theoretical possibilities explaining how corals may use this blue fluorescing pigment. They could be modifying violet light into blue light which is more readily absorbed by the peridinin pigment within the algae. There are also ways in which corals can link different highly fluorescing pocilloporins together. For example, a UV-B photon can be absorbed by a violet fluorescing pocilloporin. This would result in the emission of a violet photon which could then be absorbed by a blue fluorescing pocilloporin. This would result in the emission of a blue light photon.

The third type of highly fluorescent pocilloporin primarily absorbs light from 430 to 490 nm (violet and blue) and fluoresces light from 490 to 540 nm (green/yellow). Scientist refer to this as blue fluorescing pocilloporin, because its greatest absorption occurs within the blue area. Hobbyist should probably refer to this as green fluorescing pocilloporin, because the visual appearance of the pigment is the fluorescing of green light. Corals can theoretically use this pigment to shield themselves from excess photosynthetically useable light. This is done by the pigments absorption of blue and violet and its emission of primarily green to yellowish light which is less useable for photosynthesis.

Besides these three Highly Fluorescent Pocilloporins, there are also two other types. Yellow fluorescing pocilloporin primarily absorbs light from 440 to 500 nm (blue) and fluoresces light from 520 to 620 nm (green, yellow and orange). This pigment can theoretically be used as a strong light shield that absorbs photosynthetically useable blue light into primarily non-useable yellow light. The fifth type of Highly Fluorescent Pocilloporin is a Red/Orange Fluorescing pocilloporin that primarily absorbs light from 500 to 540 nm (green) and fluoresces light with wavelengths that are primarily orange to red. In many corals this red/orange fluorescing pigment can even be stimulated to fluoresce with UV, violet and blue light. It is currently theorized that different fluorescing pigment proteins are linked so that UV, violet and blue will eventually stimulate the red/orange fluorescence.

Highly Fluorescing Pocilloporins are the most common pigments found within stony corals. A recent study of corals on the southern Great Barrier Reef found that 97 % of the sampled corals contained medium or high concentrations of fluorescing pigments. These fluorescing pigments are often not visible to the human eye. It was also recently discovered that corals containing high densities of fluorescing pigments were less sensitive to coral bleaching that was induced by photo damage to the photosynthetic apparatus within the corals algae. I personally was curious as to why the Coral Reefs paper mentioned earlier was held up for one year due to a patent application. So I talked to an associate at the Arizona Cancer Center about the paper. It appears that knowing the molecular structure of these fluorescing pocilloporins may turn out to be very important tools concerning the administration of multiple drug treatments. Each drug within a multiple drug treatment can be given different fluorescing capabilities which will allow researchers to determine where the different drugs went. So the study of coral pigmentation appears to be developing new and important tools for human medicine.

现代书呆子

大小爱次 发表于 2016-4-27 10:31
翻译啊

。。。。。。你这楼插的好快

深之海~

演示文稿

介绍

很高兴能再次通过 #reefs 在线。此特定的演示文稿将基本的级别简介一些有关内光合珊瑚颜料的最新问题。已有一些重要的科学论文，出版了关于颜料的珊瑚动物本身过去几年内。第二主题讨论关注内驻留在光合珊瑚共生藻光合色素。有一些重要的工作，对这些物种共生甲藻藻被俘虏的珊瑚市场很大程度上被忽略。三个讨论话题讨论此演示文稿关切如何圈养照明可以安装程序，以建立一个更好地为藻类提供的照明环境和珊瑚光收集与类型的光或特定的颜色，他们身体可以吸收的光的颜料。具体灯泡的性能被讨论的基础进行的桑杰 · 乔希发表光谱测试。我刚刚亲自完成照明和一本关于将由东方红/微观世界出版的石珊瑚书颜料写为三章手稿。这本书的草稿将完成了秋天，应在 1 到 2 年内打印。3 章节包含共 43,000 字、 65 数字和 31 表。不用说，我们不能传递所有的信息通过这个论坛，我想这也违背的合同已经签订了图书出版者。一读通过这些章节的第一个审阅者指出，可能有一些礁爱好的既定传统智慧与冲突的很多分。因此，它可能是一个好的主意来设置地面工作，通过介绍这类的信息。应该指出的是一个完整的参考清单不会在这里，给出，但会出现在此书中东方红/缩影石珊瑚。

第一节-内共生甲藻藻光收集颜料

光合珊瑚首先进化在百万年前没有使用或捕捉光线的能力。他们最初是营养的通过收集食品与外部息肉触角派生几乎所有他们的动物。从海水，溶解的有机物与无机营养物质也可能直接吸收了。在他们的自然历史的某一时刻，这些简单的无脊椎动物动物开发能力纳入生活单细胞藻类在他们的身体内。这种关系已经发展到珊瑚在哪里现在可以控制藻类释放很大比例的有机碳化合物，从光合作用的过程产生的点。从本质上说，珊瑚是现在养殖藻类和利用藻类为原料合成的有机产品。作为回报，珊瑚藻类提供一个稳定的环境，也提供藻类所需的营养。这共生的藻类，可以发生在珊瑚漂白事件期间，损失可以经常导致现代天光合珊瑚的死亡。

在光合珊瑚藻类是缺乏正常的鞭毛虫或尾巴的单细胞藻。腰鞭毛虫是栖息在世界海洋的浅水水域浮游植物群落的重要成员。其他然后缺乏一条尾巴，珊瑚藻拥有共有的其他腰鞭毛虫的特征。有许多不同种类的珊瑚、 蛤蜊和其他各种的无脊椎生物内共生的共生甲藻藻。一些特定的珊瑚甚至包含多个物种或藻类多株。光显然是一个非常重要的因素，为光合藻类。光合作用的过程涉及到光收集的颜料，是拥有能够吸收可见光光子的基本化学分子。从这些吸收光子能量然后转移到反应中心。我们将不讨论光合过程的内部运作。在此演示文稿期间主要关注的是实际的光收集颜料的藻类。没有这些颜料会没有吸收的光能的光合反应中心来处理。

光合色素的颜料，收集和处理最终直接利用光合机构的光能量。共生甲藻藻也包含非光合色素通常用于光保护功能。非光合色素包括类胡萝卜素 β-胡萝卜素和叶黄素。实际的光合色素内共生甲藻藻类可以分为两种不同的类型，是叶绿素和类胡萝卜素植物色素。叶绿素的包括 chlorophyll_a 和 cholorphyll_c2。Chlorophyll_a 具有强烈的光吸收能力的光的光谱紫蓝区内

现代书呆子

深之海~ 发表于 2016-4-27 10:41
演示文稿

介绍

牛啊！继续帮忙翻译

深之海~

第二-光收集颜料的珊瑚动物节

在光合石珊瑚内的褐色是由于光收集发现内珊瑚共生藻的色素。光合石珊瑚也可以拥有很多其他颜色范围从紫罗兰，蓝色，绿色，黄色，橘子到红军，可以包括许多组合和色调的这些原色。这充满异国情调的色调是发现珊瑚动物的组织内和不内共生甲藻的色素。珊瑚的颜料不能直接将收集光能量转移到珊瑚共生藻，但在一些深的水中珊瑚他们颜料似乎正在修改现有的光场由荧光一种颜色或光的波长成另一种颜色或波长。它已从理论上提出，这可能是一种间接的方法在哪里一些珊瑚的颜料可以协助海藻色素与光的集合。浅水石珊瑚已被发现拥有更强烈地产生更高的光照条件下的颜料。一些这些浅水珊瑚颜料可能屏蔽某些波长，可以帮助防止内藻类光合作用的光抑制的明亮的光从珊瑚。

确定第一个珊瑚色素被发现内及骨 damicornis 石珊瑚粉色彩色的颜料。它给出了名字 pocilloporin。Pocilloporin 主要吸收绿色/黄色 (550-600 nm) 光和一些上层紫外线 A.色素的密度随光强度的增加。最近据推测此颜料主要功能可能吸收黄色和绿色光，否则可以作为吸收散射光的珊瑚光合藻类。在某些情况下 （光强） 这种类型的绿色和黄色光的散射吸收可以发生。这种色素也发出或荧光极少量 （橙/红） 光从 610 630 nm。除了粉红色 pocilloporin 也有许多其他类型的光合的石珊瑚内发生的 pocilloporin 颜料。最近的研究组这些类型作为任一明亮彩色低荧光 Pocilloporins 或高度荧光 Pocilloporins。原始的粉红色 pocilloporin 颜料是明亮彩色低荧光 Pocilloporin 和日期，它是唯一标识珊瑚色素内该类型或类别。高荧光 Pocilloporin 颜料有能力吸收特定波长的光，然后发出荧光，或者此发光成不同的波长。荧光颜料似乎有两个不同的职能。强烈的光线从珊瑚利用这些颜料屏蔽紫外线和过多的光合可用光线从虫黄藻。从低光拥有荧光颜料的珊瑚可以使用这些颜料来变换或进入更合可用光荧光紫外线 A 和紫罗兰色的光。

2001 年出版了一篇非常重要的科学论文关于珊瑚的荧光 Pocilloporin 颜料。题为"主要的颜色模式的造礁珊瑚是由于一个绿色荧光蛋白样蛋白家族"。它刊登在珊瑚礁 19:197-204。本文的发布推迟了一年，由于之前在澳大利亚的专利申请。我设法获取一份手稿出版前约 6 个月。本文介绍了荧光颜料的石珊瑚的实际分子组成。他们基因鉴定 3 种不同类型的高荧光 pocilloporins。一种类型主要吸收光线从 310 至 380 毫微米 (紫外线-B 和紫外线 A)，然后荧光这作为光从 400 到 470 nm （紫蓝）。科学家将这称为紫外线荧光 pocilloporin，因为紫外线区域内发生的最大吸收。爱好者应该可能将这称为紫荧光 pocilloporin，因为色素的视觉外观是紫色的光荧光。珊瑚在浅水中的理论上可以使用这种色素来掩护自己从有害影响的紫外线，同时在深水珊瑚可以修改紫外线 A 光成是更合可用的光。不幸的是为业余爱好者，我们的眼睛不是很擅长感知紫光的。此外，刺激这色素荧光要求生产紫外线 A 紫外线 B 光盖过礁石。紫罗兰色荧光 Pocilloporin 可能是圈养珊瑚不重视。

高荧光 pocilloporin 第二种主要吸收光从 380 到 470 nm （紫外-A，紫色和蓝色） 和荧光光从 475 到 520 nm （蓝色和绿色）。科学家将这称为紫荧光 pocilloporin，因为其最大的吸收发生在紫罗兰色的区域内。爱好者应该可能将这称为蓝色荧光 pocilloporin，因为色素的视觉外观是荧光蓝灯。有对夫妇的理论可能性解释我

深之海~

第三节-圈养照明应用

只是什么海藻色素有关的所有信息和珊瑚颜料指俘虏的石质让饲养员吗？这本书对我写的东方红/缩影的俘虏石珊瑚进入详细地讨论如何具体灯泡的光谱输出相关或与各种珊瑚和海藻类颜料光谱特性相匹配。我花很少时间来分析如何降低温度灯泡 （例如 5,500 K 和 4,200 K） 的光谱输出关联与藻类和珊瑚的色素沉着。这只是因为他们关联很差。放出大量的黄色的灯泡，橙色和红色光不会刺激高度荧光 Pocilloporin 颜料的荧光。不会排放大量的紫，蓝，绿光的灯泡将不会提供由海藻的 chlorophyll_a、 chlorophyll_c2 和植物色素吸收的光的主波长。Chlorophyll_a 可以吸收一些红光，但 5,500 K 和 4,200 K 灯泡不会发出红光的合适的波长。

以帮助澄清这种情况我已分组到 4 个基本组或类型的可用圈养灯泡。他们是全谱绿色超级蓝、 全谱紫、 光学 （超级紫）。岩崎 6,500 K 是列为全谱绿色灯泡只灯泡。这个灯泡发出它的光在谱的绿色和黄色的部分内的最高百分比。它还会发出大量的紫色、 蓝色、 橙色和红色光。约 60%由这个灯泡发出的总光是绿色、 黄色或橙色的光。这种类型的光不被内藻类叶绿素和植物色素的主要吸收。灯泡然而并发出大量的紫色和蓝色的光，是由藻类主要可用。这个灯泡可以使用内发射谱约 440 其高能量蓝色部分提振毫微米。许多让饲养员经历了成功与灯泡，它是绝对可用。由灯泡发出很强的光子通量密度有助于弥补其光谱的局限性。这个灯泡将适度刺激蓝色、 黄色、 链接红色荧光 pocilloporin 颜料。绿色和红色荧光 pocilloporin 都会强烈刺激发出荧光。适量的这个灯泡的光线可以吸收粉红色 pocilloporin 颜料。这个灯泡的 400 和 250 瓦版本都可用为浅水石珊瑚。很多让饲养员将用于光化荧光灯帮助平衡灯泡的绿色/黄色外观。它将更好地添加蓝色的光，因为灯泡已经发出大量的紫色光线。

镭/欧司朗 20,000 K 及森伯斯特 12000 K 被列为超级蓝色灯泡做成。他们的光波长从 440 到 460 内绝大多数的超级蓝色灯泡散发出毫微米 （高能量蓝色）。他们还放出少量的紫光和绿光。这个灯泡的窄排放恰巧位于 chlorophyll_a、 chlorophyll_c2 和植物色素能吸收和利用光的光谱范围内。从超级蓝灯泡发出的光能量绝大多数是由藻类光合作用可用。这些灯泡可以实际获益谱紫区内的提振。然而最让饲养员将增加日光荧光灯对付的灯泡很蓝的可视外观。这些灯泡会强烈刺激蓝色、 绿色和黄色荧光 pocilloporin 颜料。红色荧光 pocilloporin 将适度地强烈刺激。超级蓝灯泡只提供少量弱的可以吸收的粉红色 pocilloporin 色素的光。欧司朗/镭的 400 瓦特版本和森伯斯特灯的 250 瓦的版本都可用为浅水石珊瑚。

Ushio 10000 K 和安东布施克 10,000 K 是全谱紫灯泡。这些灯泡的光谱输出的特点是紫色光线和中学排放的绿色，黄色和橘黄色的灯光大排放。桑杰 · 乔希指出这些灯泡诱骗思考人类的眼睛会排放大量的蓝光。重大的紫色光发射将为 chlorophyll_a 颜料的藻类提供充足的光线。这些灯泡将真正受益于补充蓝色的光。全谱紫灯泡将适度刺激绿色、 黄色和红色荧光 pocilloporins 的荧光。他们会强烈刺激蓝色和链接的红色荧光色素荧光。这些灯泡只提供少量弱的可以吸收的粉红色 pocilloporin 色素的光。Ushio 和安东布施克 400 瓦特版本是可以接受的灯泡，而双结束 HQI 和安东布施克的 250 瓦的版本也是可以接受。光化性灯泡或超级紫灯泡最适合用于作为补充灯灯泡

深之海~

问题与答案

光合反应有一系列的是最有效的超出这个范围，光合作用的辐射其已知落......你相信在珊瑚内的彩色的颜料是更多的保护或糖生产吗？

我认为你问一问珊瑚颜料是否对光合生产或 phtoprotection 更重要。任何藻类免受光损伤在长期内会增加产。

你有什么想法对珊瑚的生长速率和健康与色温的灯泡？有"理想"灯泡组合为礁岩缸中你的意见吗？

虽然我没有在这里对于这个题目的时候，我其实推荐组合不同的灯泡，以帮助实现较为理想的频谱。例如，岩崎 6500 K 和超级蓝灯泡是好的。10,000 K 和超级蓝也是很好的。不管相信与否，actinics 与 20,000 K 的结合也是很好，但可能是太蓝大多数冷藏箱。

生理上讲，flourescing 颜料你提到的他们会发生 zoox 频道前或身后吗？它会更有意义，自适应地以反映主 zoox fluoresced 光回而不会丢失任何给定的光谱特征吗？

微弱的光珊瑚 FPG （荧光颜料颗粒） 位于下方 zoox。他们修改 UV 和紫色光线进入光的荧光是更合可用它向上 zoox。强烈的光线的珊瑚有 FPG 位于上方的 zoox，fluoresced 光向上而去。

不照明有关，但斯托尼着色如何受大量的营养物质在水中？一些更加丰富多彩，他人并获取带褐色吗？"

研究表明，氮 （硝酸） 水平升高可能导致增加的密度，zoox。这将导致珊瑚显得更接近褐色。我也注意到，是否物理环境不正确 （弱电流 ad inappropiate 照明） 颜料将也会变淡。那是的珊瑚颜料会褪色。

MH 照明一般产生紫外线-A/B 照明还是需要结合？岩崎 6500 K 灯泡呢？

还有少量的紫外线 A，由单结束金属卤化物 （根据桑杰的测试）。双单端的灯泡当然发出得太多了，并且需要屏蔽。UV 灯可以真的只能用于荧光紫荧光 Pocilloporin。如果你想要尝试这种色素或许你也可以使用黑色光。

Danna 谜正在与引导他说的也许我们正在利用多暴露在我们的坦克因为珊瑚使用所有他们需要的光后，一切都是徒劳的新光装置。你听说过他的新工作吗？如何这你听吗？

我已经回应德纳第一篇文章关于这在线杂志 AAOLM (注 ︰ AAOLM 是先进的照管在线杂志，发现在 http://www.advancedaquarist.com)。检查消息审计委员会关于他的文章的一些反应。有很多困难与收集数据和其他礁专家博恩曼和哈克等也出现了一些问题。PAM Fluorimeters 的问题一般是它们不与植物色素在心中设计。他们在石珊瑚 zoox 上的使用产生了混合的结果。

每个入射光子为这些类型的荧光分子的典型转换效率是什么？

这是一个有趣的问题。从我所读有是每吸收荧光。否则，这可能导致内色素的热或能源的问题。可能这些颜料可能也耗散能量通过热和不总是发出荧光。这可能是个不错的题材作进一步调查。

每个人都关心生成大量的紫外线辐射 （如 HQI) 的灯泡，你觉得 UV 是必要的组成部分，珊瑚着色/增长需要或总体是有害的？

如果你计划你的石珊瑚释放到自然环境 （圈养农耕替换自然种群） 它可能会一个好的主意，要他们适应强紫外线照射。为正常自保的情况下它可能只是关注时你都将从较低的光场的珊瑚移入实力较强的。总体我们已经成功在囚禁没有紫外线照射，但如果你想要发出荧光紫荧光 pocilloporin 一些紫外光可能顺序。

你赞同圈养释放到环境吗？

以取代最近灭绝的物种是一个很好的主意。引进非本土物种它不是一个好主意。

你有什么想法对上更高的开尔文灯泡使用寿命？目前的思路是，岩崎是可用 12 ~ 18 个月的而更高的开尔文灯泡需要更换每 6-9 个月。你认为这是这种情况吗？

这是灯泡的真实的如果你保持恒定的光周期的整个生存期中。当使用超级蓝色灯泡

深之海~

必应翻译的，凑合看吧。有高手的话再补充~

大小爱次

深之海~ 发表于 2016-4-27 10:49
必应翻译的，凑合看吧。有高手的话再补充~

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